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Contents Preface xi Part I General Issues 1 1 Introduction 2 The Science of Psychology 3 Science in Context 6 Historical Context 6 Social and Cultural Context 10 Moral Context 13 Thinking Like a Researcher 14 Evaluating Research Findings Reported in the Media 18 Getting Started Doing Research 19 Summary 23 Key Concepts 24 Review Questions 24 Challenge Questions 25 Answer to Stretching Exercise 25 Answer to Challenge Question 1 26 2 The Scientific Method 27 Scientific and Everyday Approaches to Knowledge 28 General Approach 29 Observation 30 Reporting 33 Concepts 35 Instruments 37 Measurement 38 Hypotheses 39 Goals of the Scientific Method 41 Description 41 Prediction 45 Explanation 46 Application 49 Scientific Theory Construction and Testing 50 Summary 53 Key Concepts 54 Review Questions 55 Challenge Questions 55 Answer to Stretching Exercise 57 Answer to Challenge Question 1 57 3 Ethical Issues in the Conduct of Psychological Research 58 Introduction 59 Ethical Issues to Consider Before Beginning Research 60 The Risk/Benefit Ratio 63 Determining Risk 64 Minimal Risk 66 Dealing with Risk 66 Informed Consent 67 Deception in Psychological Research 74 Debriefing 78 Research with Animals 81 Reporting of Psychological Research 84 Steps for Ethical Decision Making 87 Summary 88 Key Concepts 89 Review Questions 89 Challenge Questions 90 Part II Descriptive Methods 93 4 Observation 94 Overview 95 Sampling Behavior 96 Time Sampling 97 Situation Sampling 98 Classification of Observational Methods 99 Observation Without Intervention 100 Observation with Intervention 102 Participant Observation 102 Structured Observation 106 Field Experiments 109 Recording Behavior 110 Qualitative Records of Behavior 111 Quantitative Measures of Behavior 113 Analysis of Observational Data 118 Data Reduction 118 Observer Reliability 121 Thinking Critically About Observational Research 123 Influence of the Observer 123 Observer Bias 128 Summary 130 Key Concepts 130 Review Questions 131 Challenge Questions 132 Answer to Stretching Exercise 132 Answer to Challenge Question 1 134 5 Survey Research 135 Overview 136 Uses of Surveys 136 Characteristics of Surveys 138 Sampling in Survey Research 138 Basic Terms of Sampling 139 Approaches to Sampling 142 Survey Methods 146 Mail Surveys 146 Personal Interviews 148 Telephone Interviews 149 Internet Surveys 150 Survey-Research Designs 152 Cross-Sectional Design 152 Successive Independent Samples Design 153 Longitudinal Design 156 Questionnaires 159 Questionnaires as Instruments 159 Reliability and Validity of Self-Report Measures 162 Constructing a Questionnaire 165 Thinking Critically About Survey Research 171 Correspondence Between Reported and Actual Behaviour 171 Correlation and Causality 172 Summary 175 Key Concepts 176 Review Questions 176 Challenge Questions 177 Answer to Stretching Exercise I 179 Answer to Stretching Exercise II 179 Answer to Challenge Question 1 179 6 Unobtrusive Measures of Behavior 180 Overview 181 Physical Traces 181 Rationale 181 Types of Physical Traces 182 Problems and Limitations 185 Archival Data 187 Rationale 187 Content Analysis 192 Problems and Limitations 195 Ethical Issues and Unobtrusive Measures 198 Summary 199 Key Concepts 200 Review Questions 200 Challenge Questions 201 Answer to Stretching Exercise 201 Answer to Challenge Question 1 201 Part III Experimental Methods 203 7 Independent Groups Designs 204 Overview 205 Why Psychologists Conduct Experiments 205 Logic of Experimental Research 206 Random Groups Design 208 An Example of a Random Groups Design 208 Block Randomization 214 Threats to Internal Validity 215 Analysis and Interpretation of Experimental Findings 221 The Role of Data Analysis in Experiments 221 Describing the Results 223 Confirming What the Results Reveal 227 What Data Analysis Can't Tell Us 230 Establishing the External Validity of Experimental Findings 231 Matched Groups Design 235 Natural Groups Design 237 Summary 239 Key Concepts 240 Review Questions 240 Challenge Questions 241 Answer to Stretching Exercise 243 Answer to Challenge Question 1 243 8 Repeated Measures Designs 244 Overview 245 Why Researchers Use Repeated Measures Designs 245 The Role of Practice Effects in Repeated Measures Designs 247 Defining Practice Effects 248 Balancing Practice Effects in the Complete Design 250 Balancing Practice Effects in the Incomplete Design 255 Data Analysis of Repeated Measures Designs 260 Describing the Results 260 Confirming What the Results Reveal 262 The Problem of Differential Transfer 263 Summary 265 Key Concepts 265 Review Questions 266 Challenge Questions 266 Answer to Stretching Exercise 267 Answer to Challenge Question 1 267 9 Complex Designs 269 Overview 270 Guidelines for Identifying an Experimental Design 272 Describing Effects in a Complex Design 273 An Example of a 2 3 2 Design 275 Main Effects and Interaction Effects 276 Describing Interaction Effects 280 Complex Designs with Three Independent Variables 282 Analysis of Complex Designs 284 Analysis Plan with an Interaction Effect 288 Analysis Plan with No Interaction Effect 292 Interpreting Interaction Effects 294 Interaction Effects and Theory Testing 294 Interaction Effects and External Validity 295 Interaction Effects and Ceiling and Floor Effects 297 Interaction Effects and the Natural Groups Design 298 Summary 300 Key Concepts 301 Review Questions 302 Challenge Questions 302 Answer to Stretching Exercise I 303 Answer to Stretching Exercise II 304 Answer to Challenge Question 1 304 Part IV Applied Research 305 10 Single-Case Designs and Small-n Research 306 Overview 307 The Case Study Method 308 Characteristics 308 Advantages of the Case Study Method 310 Disadvantages of the Case Study Method 313 Thinking Critically About Testimonials Based on a Case Study 316 Single-Subject (Small-n) Experimental Designs 317 Characteristics of Single-Subject Experiments 319 Specific Experimental Designs 321 Problems and Limitations Common to All Single-Subject Designs 329 Summary 331 Key Concepts 333 Review Questions 333 Challenge Questions 333 Answer to Stretching Exercise 334 Answer to Challenge Question 1 335 11 Quasi-Experimental Designs and Program Evaluation 336 Overview 337 True Experiments 338 Characteristics of True Experiments 338 Obstacles to Conducting True Experiments in Natural Settings 338 Threats to Internal Validity Controlled by True Experiments 342 Problems That Even True Experiments May Not Control 345 Quasi-Experiments 348 The Nonequivalent Control Group Design 349 Nonequivalent Control Group Design: The Langer and Rodin Study 351 Sources of Invalidity in the Nonequivalent Control Group Design 354 The Issue of External Validity 358 Interrupted Time-Series Designs 359 Time Series with Nonequivalent Control Group 362 Program Evaluation 363 Summary 367 Key Concepts 369 Review Questions 369 Challenge Questions 370 Answer to Stretching Exercise 371 Answer to Challenge Question 1 371 Part V Analyzing and Reporting Research 373 12 Data Analysis and Interpretation: Part I. Describing Data, Confidence Intervals, Correlation 374 Overview 375 The Analysis Story 376 Computer-Assisted Data Analysis 377 Illustration: Data Analysis for an Experiment Comparing Means 378 Stage 1: Getting to Know the Data 378 Stage 2: Summarizing the Data 383 Stage 3: Using Confidence Intervals to Confirm What the Data Reveal 388 Illustration: Data Analysis for a Correlational Study 400 Stage 1: Getting to Know the Data 401 Stage 2: Summarizing the Data 402 Stage 3: Constructing a Confidence Interval for a Correlation 408 Summary 408 Key Concepts 410 Review Questions 410 Challenge Questions 411 Answer to Challenge Question 1 412 13 Data Analysis and Interpretation: Part II.

Tests of Statistical Significance and the Analysis Story 413 Overview 414 Null Hypothesis Significance Testing (NHST) 415 Experimental Sensitivity and Statistical Power 418 NHST: Comparing Two Means 420 Independent Groups 421 Repeated Measures Designs 422 Statistical Significance and Scientific or Practical Significance 423 Recommendations for Comparing Two Means 423 Reporting Results When Comparing Two Means 425 Data Analysis Involving More Than Two Conditions 427 ANOVA for Single-Factor Independent Groups Design 427 Calculating Effect Size for Designs with Three or More Independent Groups 433 Assessing Power for Independent Groups Designs 434 Comparing Means in Multiple-Group Experiments 435 Reporting Results of a Single-Factor Independent Groups Experiment 437 Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance 439 Two-Factor Analysis of Variance for Independent Groups Designs 444 Analysis of a Complex Design with an Interaction Effect 444 Analysis with No Interaction Effect 447 Effect Sizes for Two-Factor Design with Independent Groups 447 Role of Confidence Intervals in the Analysis of Complex Designs 448 Two-Factor Analysis of Variance for a Mixed Design 450 Reporting Results of a Complex Design 452 Summary 453 Key Concepts 454 Review Questions 454 Challenge Questions 455 Answer to Challenge Question 1 456 14 Communication in Psychology 457 Introduction 458 The Internet and Research 460 Guidelines for Effective Writing 461 Structure of a Research Report 463 Title Page 464 Abstract 465 Introduction 465 Method 468 Results 469 Discussion 473 References 474 Appendixes 475 Author Note 476 Footnotes 476 Order of Manuscript Pages 476 Oral Presentations 477 Research Proposals 478 A Sample Research Report 480 Appendix: Statistical Tables A-1 Glossary G-1 References R-1 Credits C-1 Name Index I-1 Subject Index 000 Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication: Psychology -- Research -- Methodology -- Textbooks Psychology -- Experimental -- Textbooks